Polish lowering chapters and update rules

src/traits/associated-types.md

@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ type.)
 We could apply that rule to normalize either of the examples that
 we've seen so far.
 
-## Skolemized associated types
+## Placeholder associated types
 
 Sometimes however we want to work with associated types that cannot be
 normalized. For example, consider this function:
@@ -78,20 +78,29 @@ fn foo<T: IntoIterator>(...) { ... }
 
 In this context, how would we normalize the type `T::Item`? Without
 knowing what `T` is, we can't really do so. To represent this case, we
-introduce a type called a **skolemized associated type
+introduce a type called a **placeholder associated type
 projection**. This is written like so `(IntoIterator::Item)<T>`. You
 may note that it looks a lot like a regular type (e.g., `Option<T>`),
 except that the "name" of the type is `(IntoIterator::Item)`. This is
-not an accident: skolemized associated type projections work just like
+not an accident: placeholder associated type projections work just like
 ordinary types like `Vec<T>` when it comes to unification. That is,
 they are only considered equal if (a) they are both references to the
 same associated type, like `IntoIterator::Item` and (b) their type
 arguments are equal.
 
-Skolemized associated types are never written directly by the user.
+Placeholder associated types are never written directly by the user.
 They are used internally by the trait system only, as we will see
 shortly.
 
+In rustc, they correspond to the `TyKind::UnnormalizedProjectionTy` enum
+variant, declared in [`librustc/ty/sty.rs`][sty]. In chalk, we use an
+`ApplicationTy` with a name living in a special namespace dedicated to
+placeholder associated types (see the `TypeName` enum declared in
+[`chalk-ir/src/lib.rs`][chalk_type_name]).
+
+[sty]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/librustc/ty/sty.rs
+[chalk_type_name]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/chalk/blob/master/chalk-ir/src/lib.rs
+
 ## Projection equality
 
 So far we have seen two ways to answer the question of "When can we
@@ -99,7 +108,7 @@ consider an associated type projection equal to another type?":
 
 - the `Normalize` predicate could be used to transform associated type
   projections when we knew which impl was applicable;
-- **skolemized** associated types can be used when we don't.
+- **placeholder** associated types can be used when we don't.
 
 We now introduce the `ProjectionEq` predicate to bring those two cases
 together. The `ProjectionEq` predicate looks like so:
@@ -109,7 +118,7 @@ ProjectionEq(<T as IntoIterator>::Item = U)
 ```
 
 and we will see that it can be proven *either* via normalization or
-skolemization. As part of lowering an associated type declaration from
+via the placeholder type. As part of lowering an associated type declaration from
 some trait, we create two program clauses for `ProjectionEq`:
 
 ```text

src/traits/goals-and-clauses.md

@@ -37,15 +37,33 @@ paper
 ["A Proof Procedure for the Logic of Hereditary Harrop Formulas"][pphhf]
 gives the details.
 
+In terms of code, these types are defined in
+[`librustc/traits/mod.rs`][traits_mod] in rustc, and in
+[`chalk-ir/src/lib.rs`][chalk_ir] in chalk.
+
 [pphhf]: ./bibliography.html#pphhf
+[traits_mod]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/librustc/traits/mod.rs
+[chalk_ir]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/chalk/blob/master/chalk-ir/src/lib.rs
 
 <a name="domain-goals"></a>
 
 ## Domain goals
 
+*Domain goals* are the atoms of the trait logic. As can be seen in the
+definitions given above, general goals basically consist in a combination of
+domain goals.
+
+Moreover, flattenning a bit the definition of clauses given previously, one can
+see that clauses are always of the form:
+```text
+forall<K1, ..., Kn> { DomainGoal :- Goal }
+```
+hence domain goals are in fact clauses LHS. That is, at the most granular level,
+domain goals are what the trait solver will end up trying to prove.
+
 <a name="trait-ref"></a>
 
-To define the set of *domain goals* in our system, we need to first
+To define the set of domain goals in our system, we need to first
 introduce a few simple formulations. A **trait reference** consists of
 the name of a trait along with a suitable set of inputs P0..Pn:
 
@@ -70,18 +88,24 @@ Projection = <P0 as TraitName<P1..Pn>>::AssocItem<Pn+1..Pm>
 Given these, we can define a `DomainGoal` as follows:
 
 ```text
-DomainGoal = Implemented(TraitRef)
+DomainGoal = Holds(WhereClause)
-            | ProjectionEq(Projection = Type)
-            | Normalize(Projection -> Type)
             | FromEnv(TraitRef)
-            | FromEnv(Projection = Type)
+            | FromEnv(Type)
-            | WellFormed(Type)
             | WellFormed(TraitRef)
-            | WellFormed(Projection = Type)
+            | WellFormed(Type)
+            | Normalize(Projection -> Type)
+
+WhereClause = Implemented(TraitRef)
+            | ProjectionEq(Projection = Type)
             | Outlives(Type: Region)
             | Outlives(Region: Region)
 ```
 
+`WhereClause` refers to a `where` clause that a Rust user would actually be able
+to write in a Rust program. This abstraction exists only as a convenience as we
+sometimes want to only coope with domain goals that are effectively writable in
+Rust.
+
 Let's break down each one of these, one-by-one.
 
 #### Implemented(TraitRef)
@@ -109,12 +133,10 @@ also requires proving `Implemented(T: Trait)`.
 [n]: ./associated-types.html#normalize
 [at]: ./associated-types.html
 
-#### FromEnv(TraitRef), FromEnv(Projection = Type)
+#### FromEnv(TraitRef)
 e.g. `FromEnv(Self: Add<i32>)`
 
-e.g. `FromEnv(<Self as StreamingIterator>::Item<'a> = &'a [u8])`
+True if the inner `TraitRef` is *assumed* to be true,
-
-True if the inner `TraitRef` or projection equality is *assumed* to be true;
 that is, if it can be derived from the in-scope where clauses.
 
 For example, given the following function:
@@ -131,24 +153,50 @@ where clauses nest, so a function body inside an impl body inherits the
 impl body's where clauses, too.
 
 This and the next rule are used to implement [implied bounds]. As we'll see
-in the section on lowering, `FromEnv(X)` implies `Implemented(X)`, but not
+in the section on lowering, `FromEnv(TraitRef)` implies `Implemented(TraitRef)`,
-vice versa. This distinction is crucial to implied bounds.
+but not vice versa. This distinction is crucial to implied bounds.
+
+#### FromEnv(Type)
+e.g. `FromEnv(HashSet<K>)`
+
+True if the inner `Type` is *assumed* to be well-formed, that is, if it is an
+input type of a function or an impl.
+
+For example, given the following code:
+
+```rust,ignore
+struct HashSet<K> where K: Hash { ... }
+
+fn loud_insert<K>(set: &mut HashSet<K>, item: K) {
+    println!("inserting!");
+    set.insert(item);
+}
+```
+
+`HashSet<K>` is an input type of the `loud_insert` function. Hence, we assume it
+to be well-formed, so we would have `FromEnv(HashSet<K>)` inside the body or our
+function. As we'll see in the section on lowering, `FromEnv(HashSet<K>)` implies
+`Implemented(K: Hash)` because the
+`HashSet` declaration was written with a `K: Hash` where clause. Hence, we don't
+need to repeat that bound on the `loud_insert` function: we rather automatically
+assume that it is true.
 
 #### WellFormed(Item)
 These goals imply that the given item is *well-formed*.
 
 We can talk about different types of items being well-formed:
 
-**Types**, like `WellFormed(Vec<i32>)`, which is true in Rust, or
+* *Types*, like `WellFormed(Vec<i32>)`, which is true in Rust, or
   `WellFormed(Vec<str>)`, which is not (because `str` is not `Sized`.)
 
-**TraitRefs**, like `WellFormed(Vec<i32>: Clone)`.
+* *TraitRefs*, like `WellFormed(Vec<i32>: Clone)`.
-
-**Projections**, like `WellFormed(T: Iterator<Item = u32>)`.
 
 Well-formedness is important to [implied bounds]. In particular, the reason
-it is okay to assume `FromEnv(T: Clone)` in the example above is that we
+it is okay to assume `FromEnv(T: Clone)` in the `loud_clone` example is that we
 _also_ verify `WellFormed(T: Clone)` for each call site of `loud_clone`.
+Similarly, it is okay to assume `FromEnv(HashSet<K>)` in the `loud_insert`
+example because we will verify `WellFormed(HashSet<K>)` for each call site of
+`loud_insert`. 
 
 #### Outlives(Type: Region), Outlives(Region: Region)
 e.g. `Outlives(&'a str: 'b)`, `Outlives('a: 'static)`

src/traits/index.md

@@ -33,3 +33,17 @@ Trait solving is based around a few key ideas:
   constraints can be checked by thet type checker.
   
 Note: this is not a complete list of topics. See the sidebar for more.
+
+The design of the new-style trait solving currently happens in two places:
+* The [chalk][chalk] repository is where we experiment with new ideas and
+  designs for the trait system. It basically consists of a unit testing framework
+  for the correctness and feasibility of the logical rules defining the new-style
+  trait system. It also provides the [`chalk_engine`][chalk_engine] crate, which
+  defines the new-style trait solver used both in the unit testing framework and
+  in rustc.
+* Once we are happy with the logical rules, we proceed to implementing them in
+  rustc. This mainly happens in [`librustc_traits`][librustc_traits].
+
+[chalk]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/chalk
+[chalk_engine]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/chalk/tree/master/chalk-engine
+[librustc_traits]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/tree/master/src/librustc_traits

src/traits/lowering-rules.md

@@ -27,19 +27,24 @@ comment like so:
 
     // Rule Foo-Bar-Baz
 
-you can also search through the `librustc_traits` crate in rustc
+The reference implementation of these rules is to be found in
-to find the corresponding rules from the implementation.
+[`chalk/src/rules.rs`][chalk_rules]. They are also ported in rustc in the
+[`librustc_traits`][librustc_traits] crate.
+
+[chalk_rules]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/chalk/blob/master/src/rules.rs
+[librustc_traits]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/tree/master/src/librustc_traits
 
 ## Lowering where clauses
 
 When used in a goal position, where clauses can be mapped directly to
-[domain goals][dg], as follows:
+the `Holds` variant of [domain goals][dg], as follows:
 
-- `A0: Foo<A1..An>` maps to `Implemented(A0: Foo<A1..An>)`.
+- `A0: Foo<A1..An>` maps to `Implemented(A0: Foo<A1..An>)`
-- `A0: Foo<A1..An, Item = T>` maps to
-  `ProjectionEq(<A0 as Foo<A1..An>>::Item = T)`
 - `T: 'r` maps to `Outlives(T, 'r)`
 - `'a: 'b` maps to `Outlives('a, 'b)`
+- `A0: Foo<A1..An, Item = T>` is a bit special and expands to two distinct
+  goals, namely `Implemented(A0: Foo<A1..An>)` and
+  `ProjectionEq(<A0 as Foo<A1..An>>::Item = T)`
 
 In the rules below, we will use `WC` to indicate where clauses that
 appear in Rust syntax; we will then use the same `WC` to indicate
@@ -54,11 +59,10 @@ on the lowered where clauses, as defined here:
 
 - `FromEnv(WC)` – this indicates that:
   - `Implemented(TraitRef)` becomes `FromEnv(TraitRef)`
-  - `ProjectionEq(Projection = Ty)` becomes `FromEnv(Projection = Ty)`
   - other where-clauses are left intact
 - `WellFormed(WC)` – this indicates that:
   - `Implemented(TraitRef)` becomes `WellFormed(TraitRef)`
-  - `ProjectionEq(Projection = Ty)` becomes `WellFormed(Projection = Ty)`
+  - other where-clauses are left intact
 
 *TODO*: I suspect that we want to alter the outlives relations too,
 but Chalk isn't modeling those right now.
@@ -99,9 +103,11 @@ forall<Self, P1..Pn> {
 #### Implied bounds
 
 The next few clauses have to do with implied bounds (see also
-[RFC 2089]). For each trait, we produce two clauses:
+[RFC 2089] and the [implied bounds][implied_bounds] chapter for a more in depth
+cover). For each trait, we produce two clauses:
 
 [RFC 2089]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rfcs/2089-implied-bounds.html
+[implied_bounds]: ./implied-bounds.md
 
 ```text
 // Rule Implied-Bound-From-Trait
@@ -210,7 +216,7 @@ well-formed, we can also assume that its where clauses hold. That is,
 we produce the following family of rules:
 
 ```text
-// Rule FromEnv-Type
+// Rule Implied-Bound-From-Type
 //
 // For each where clause `WC`
 forall<P1..Pn> {
@@ -280,10 +286,10 @@ forall<Self, P1..Pn, Pn+1..Pm, U> {
 ```
 
 ```text
-// Rule ProjectionEq-Skolemize
+// Rule ProjectionEq-Placeholder
 //
-// ProjectionEq can succeed by skolemizing, see "associated type"
+// ProjectionEq can succeed through the placeholder associated type,
-// chapter for more:
+// see "associated type" chapter for more:
 forall<Self, P1..Pn, Pn+1..Pm> {
   ProjectionEq(
     <Self as Trait<P1..Pn>>::AssocType<Pn+1..Pm> =
@@ -303,7 +309,7 @@ elsewhere.
 // For each `Bound` in `Bounds`:
 forall<Self, P1..Pn, Pn+1..Pm> {
     FromEnv(<Self as Trait<P1..Pn>>::AssocType<Pn+1..Pm>>: Bound) :-
-      FromEnv(Self: Trait<P1..Pn>)
+      FromEnv(Self: Trait<P1..Pn>) && WC1
 }
 ```
 
@@ -314,7 +320,7 @@ type to be well-formed...
 // Rule WellFormed-AssocTy
 forall<Self, P1..Pn, Pn+1..Pm> {
     WellFormed((Trait::AssocType)<Self, P1..Pn, Pn+1..Pm>) :-
-      WC1, Implemented(Self: Trait<P1..Pn>)
+      Implemented(Self: Trait<P1..Pn>) && WC1
 }
 ```