Clean up and reorganize traits chapter

src/SUMMARY.md

@@ -18,6 +18,9 @@
 - [The `ty` module: representing types](./ty.md)
 - [Type inference](./type-inference.md)
 - [Trait resolution](./trait-resolution.md)
+    - [Higher-ranked trait bounds](./trait-hrtb.md)
+    - [Caching subtleties](./trait-caching.md)
+    - [Speciailization](./trait-specialization.md)
 - [Type checking](./type-checking.md)
 - [The MIR (Mid-level IR)](./mir.md)
     - [MIR construction](./mir-construction.md)

src/trait-caching.md

@@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
+# Caching and subtle considerations therewith
+
+In general we attempt to cache the results of trait selection.  This
+is a somewhat complex process. Part of the reason for this is that we
+want to be able to cache results even when all the types in the trait
+reference are not fully known. In that case, it may happen that the
+trait selection process is also influencing type variables, so we have
+to be able to not only cache the *result* of the selection process,
+but *replay* its effects on the type variables.
+
+## An example
+
+The high-level idea of how the cache works is that we first replace
+all unbound inference variables with skolemized versions. Therefore,
+if we had a trait reference `usize : Foo<$1>`, where `$n` is an unbound
+inference variable, we might replace it with `usize : Foo<%0>`, where
+`%n` is a skolemized type. We would then look this up in the cache.
+If we found a hit, the hit would tell us the immediate next step to
+take in the selection process: i.e. apply impl #22, or apply where
+clause `X : Foo<Y>`. Let's say in this case there is no hit.
+Therefore, we search through impls and where clauses and so forth, and
+we come to the conclusion that the only possible impl is this one,
+with def-id 22:
+
+```rust
+impl Foo<isize> for usize { ... } // Impl #22
+```
+
+We would then record in the cache `usize : Foo<%0> ==>
+ImplCandidate(22)`. Next we would confirm `ImplCandidate(22)`, which
+would (as a side-effect) unify `$1` with `isize`.
+
+Now, at some later time, we might come along and see a `usize :
+Foo<$3>`.  When skolemized, this would yield `usize : Foo<%0>`, just as
+before, and hence the cache lookup would succeed, yielding
+`ImplCandidate(22)`. We would confirm `ImplCandidate(22)` which would
+(as a side-effect) unify `$3` with `isize`.
+
+## Where clauses and the local vs global cache
+
+One subtle interaction is that the results of trait lookup will vary
+depending on what where clauses are in scope. Therefore, we actually
+have *two* caches, a local and a global cache. The local cache is
+attached to the `ParamEnv` and the global cache attached to the
+`tcx`. We use the local cache whenever the result might depend on the
+where clauses that are in scope. The determination of which cache to
+use is done by the method `pick_candidate_cache` in `select.rs`. At
+the moment, we use a very simple, conservative rule: if there are any
+where-clauses in scope, then we use the local cache.  We used to try
+and draw finer-grained distinctions, but that led to a serious of
+annoying and weird bugs like #22019 and #18290. This simple rule seems
+to be pretty clearly safe and also still retains a very high hit rate
+(~95% when compiling rustc).
+

src/trait-hrtb.md

@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+# Higher-ranked trait bounds
+
+One of the more subtle concepts at work are *higher-ranked trait
+bounds*. An example of such a bound is `for<'a> MyTrait<&'a isize>`.
+Let's walk through how selection on higher-ranked trait references
+works.
+
+## Basic matching and skolemization leaks
+
+Let's walk through the test `compile-fail/hrtb-just-for-static.rs` to see
+how it works. The test starts with the trait `Foo`:
+
+```rust
+trait Foo<X> {
+    fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
+}
+```
+
+Let's say we have a function `want_hrtb` that wants a type which
+implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any `'a`:
+
+```rust
+fn want_hrtb<T>() where T : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize> { ... }
+```
+
+Now we have a struct `AnyInt` that implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any
+`'a`:
+
+```rust
+struct AnyInt;
+impl<'a> Foo<&'a isize> for AnyInt { }
+```
+
+And the question is, does `AnyInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>`? We want the
+answer to be yes. The algorithm for figuring it out is closely related
+to the subtyping for higher-ranked types (which is described in
+`middle::infer::higher_ranked::doc`, but also in a [paper by SPJ] that
+I recommend you read).
+
+1. Skolemize the obligation.
+2. Match the impl against the skolemized obligation.
+3. Check for skolemization leaks.
+
+[paper by SPJ]: http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/higher-rank/
+
+So let's work through our example. The first thing we would do is to
+skolemize the obligation, yielding `AnyInt : Foo<&'0 isize>` (here `'0`
+represents skolemized region #0). Note that now have no quantifiers;
+in terms of the compiler type, this changes from a `ty::PolyTraitRef`
+to a `TraitRef`. We would then create the `TraitRef` from the impl,
+using fresh variables for it's bound regions (and thus getting
+`Foo<&'$a isize>`, where `'$a` is the inference variable for `'a`). Next
+we relate the two trait refs, yielding a graph with the constraint
+that `'0 == '$a`. Finally, we check for skolemization "leaks" – a
+leak is basically any attempt to relate a skolemized region to another
+skolemized region, or to any region that pre-existed the impl match.
+The leak check is done by searching from the skolemized region to find
+the set of regions that it is related to in any way. This is called
+the "taint" set. To pass the check, that set must consist *solely* of
+itself and region variables from the impl. If the taint set includes
+any other region, then the match is a failure. In this case, the taint
+set for `'0` is `{'0, '$a}`, and hence the check will succeed.
+
+Let's consider a failure case. Imagine we also have a struct
+
+```rust
+struct StaticInt;
+impl Foo<&'static isize> for StaticInt;
+```
+
+We want the obligation `StaticInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` to be
+considered unsatisfied. The check begins just as before. `'a` is
+skolemized to `'0` and the impl trait reference is instantiated to
+`Foo<&'static isize>`. When we relate those two, we get a constraint
+like `'static == '0`. This means that the taint set for `'0` is `{'0,
+'static}`, which fails the leak check.
+
+## Higher-ranked trait obligations
+
+Once the basic matching is done, we get to another interesting topic:
+how to deal with impl obligations. I'll work through a simple example
+here. Imagine we have the traits `Foo` and `Bar` and an associated impl:
+
+```rust
+trait Foo<X> {
+    fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
+}
+
+trait Bar<X> {
+    fn bar(&self, x: X) { }
+}
+
+impl<X,F> Foo<X> for F
+    where F : Bar<X>
+{
+}
+```
+
+Now let's say we have a obligation `for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` and we match
+this impl. What obligation is generated as a result? We want to get
+`for<'a> Bar<&'a isize>`, but how does that happen?
+
+After the matching, we are in a position where we have a skolemized
+substitution like `X => &'0 isize`. If we apply this substitution to the
+impl obligations, we get `F : Bar<&'0 isize>`. Obviously this is not
+directly usable because the skolemized region `'0` cannot leak out of
+our computation.
+
+What we do is to create an inverse mapping from the taint set of `'0`
+back to the original bound region (`'a`, here) that `'0` resulted
+from. (This is done in `higher_ranked::plug_leaks`). We know that the
+leak check passed, so this taint set consists solely of the skolemized
+region itself plus various intermediate region variables. We then walk
+the trait-reference and convert every region in that taint set back to
+a late-bound region, so in this case we'd wind up with `for<'a> F :
+Bar<&'a isize>`.

src/trait-resolution.md

@@ -1,10 +1,7 @@
 # Trait resolution
 
-This document describes the general process and points out some non-obvious
+This chapter describes the general process of _trait resolution_ and points out
-things.
+some non-obvious things.
-
-**WARNING:** This material was moved verbatim from a rustc README, so
-it may not "fit" the style of the guide until it is adapted.
 
 ## Major concepts
 
@@ -21,12 +18,12 @@ and then a call to that function:
 let v: Vec<isize> = clone_slice(&[1, 2, 3])
 ```
 
-it is the job of trait resolution to figure out (in which case)
+it is the job of trait resolution to figure out whether there exists an impl of
-whether there exists an impl of `isize : Clone`
+(in this case) `isize : Clone`.
 
 Note that in some cases, like generic functions, we may not be able to
 find a specific impl, but we can figure out that the caller must
-provide an impl. To see what I mean, consider the body of `clone_slice`:
+provide an impl. For example, consider the body of `clone_slice`:
 
 ```rust
 fn clone_slice<T:Clone>(x: &[T]) -> Vec<T> {
@@ -43,26 +40,33 @@ is, we can't find the specific impl; but based on the bound `T:Clone`,
 we can say that there exists an impl which the caller must provide.
 
 We use the term *obligation* to refer to a trait reference in need of
-an impl.
+an impl. Basically, the trait resolution system resolves an obligation
+by proving that an appropriate impl does exist.
+
+During type checking, we do not store the results of trait selection.
+We simply wish to verify that trait selection will succeed. Then
+later, at trans time, when we have all concrete types available, we
+can repeat the trait selection to choose an actual implementation, which
+will then be generated in the output binary.
 
 ## Overview
 
 Trait resolution consists of three major parts:
 
-- SELECTION: Deciding how to resolve a specific obligation. For
+- **Selection** is deciding how to resolve a specific obligation. For
   example, selection might decide that a specific obligation can be
-  resolved by employing an impl which matches the self type, or by
+  resolved by employing an impl which matches the `Self` type, or by
-  using a parameter bound. In the case of an impl, Selecting one
+  using a parameter bound (e.g. `T: Trait`). In the case of an impl, selecting one
   obligation can create *nested obligations* because of where clauses
   on the impl itself. It may also require evaluating those nested
   obligations to resolve ambiguities.
 
-- FULFILLMENT: The fulfillment code is what tracks that obligations
+- **Fulfillment** is keeping track of which obligations
-  are completely fulfilled. Basically it is a worklist of obligations
+  are completely fulfilled. Basically, it is a worklist of obligations
   to be selected: once selection is successful, the obligation is
   removed from the worklist and any nested obligations are enqueued.
 
-- COHERENCE: The coherence checks are intended to ensure that there
+- **Coherence** checks are intended to ensure that there
   are never overlapping impls, where two impls could be used with
   equal precedence.
 
@@ -83,12 +87,21 @@ and returns a `SelectionResult`. There are three possible outcomes:
   contains unbound type variables.
 
 - `Err(err)` – the obligation definitely cannot be resolved due to a
-  type error, or because there are no impls that could possibly apply,
+  type error or because there are no impls that could possibly apply.
-  etc.
 
 The basic algorithm for selection is broken into two big phases:
 candidate assembly and confirmation.
 
+Note that because of how lifetime inference works, it is not possible to
+give back immediate feedback as to whether a unification or subtype
+relationship between lifetimes holds or not. Therefore, lifetime
+matching is *not* considered during selection. This is reflected in
+the fact that subregion assignment is infallible. This may yield
+lifetime constraints that will later be found to be in error (in
+contrast, the non-lifetime-constraints have already been checked
+during selection and can never cause an error, though naturally they
+may lead to other errors downstream).
+
 ### Candidate assembly
 
 Searches for impls/where-clauses/etc that might
@@ -98,6 +111,15 @@ candidate that is definitively applicable. In some cases, we may not
 know whether an impl/where-clause applies or not – this occurs when
 the obligation contains unbound inference variables.
 
+The subroutines that decide whether a particular impl/where-clause/etc
+applies to a particular obligation are collectively refered to as the
+process of _matching_. At the moment, this amounts to
+unifying the `Self` types, but in the future we may also recursively
+consider some of the nested obligations, in the case of an impl.
+
+**TODO**: what does "unifying the `Self` types" mean? The `Self` of the
+obligation with that of an impl?
+
 The basic idea for candidate assembly is to do a first pass in which
 we identify all possible candidates. During this pass, all that we do
 is try and unify the type parameters. (In particular, we ignore any
@@ -141,16 +163,14 @@ let y = x.convert();
 
 The call to convert will generate a trait reference `Convert<$Y> for
 isize`, where `$Y` is the type variable representing the type of
-`y`. When we match this against the two impls we can see, we will find
+`y`. Of the two impls we can see, the only one that matches is
-that only one remains: `Convert<usize> for isize`. Therefore, we can
+`Convert<usize> for isize`. Therefore, we can
 select this impl, which will cause the type of `$Y` to be unified to
 `usize`. (Note that while assembling candidates, we do the initial
 unifications in a transaction, so that they don't affect one another.)
 
-There are tests to this effect in src/test/run-pass:
+**TODO**: The example says we can "select" the impl, but this section is talking specifically about candidate assembly. Does this mean we can sometimes skip confirmation? Or is this poor wording?
-
+**TODO**: Is the unification of `$Y` part of trait resolution or type inference? Or is this not the same type of "inference variable" as in type inference?
-   traits-multidispatch-infer-convert-source-and-target.rs
-   traits-multidispatch-infer-convert-target.rs
 
 #### Winnowing: Resolving ambiguities
 
@@ -167,94 +187,103 @@ impl<T:Copy> Get for T {
 }
 
 impl<T:Get> Get for Box<T> {
-    fn get(&self) -> Box<T> { box get_it(&**self) }
+    fn get(&self) -> Box<T> { Box::new(get_it(&**self)) }
 }
 ```
 
-What happens when we invoke `get_it(&box 1_u16)`, for example? In this
+What happens when we invoke `get_it(&Box::new(1_u16))`, for example? In this
 case, the `Self` type is `Box<u16>` – that unifies with both impls,
 because the first applies to all types, and the second to all
-boxes. In the olden days we'd have called this ambiguous. But what we
+boxes. In order for this to be unambiguous, the compiler does a *winnowing*
-do now is do a second *winnowing* pass that considers where clauses
+pass that considers `where` clauses
-and attempts to remove candidates – in this case, the first impl only
+and attempts to remove candidates. In this case, the first impl only
 applies if `Box<u16> : Copy`, which doesn't hold. After winnowing,
-then, we are left with just one candidate, so we can proceed. There is
+then, we are left with just one candidate, so we can proceed.
-a test of this in `src/test/run-pass/traits-conditional-dispatch.rs`.
 
-#### Matching
+#### `where` clauses
-
-The subroutines that decide whether a particular impl/where-clause/etc
-applies to a particular obligation. At the moment, this amounts to
-unifying the self types, but in the future we may also recursively
-consider some of the nested obligations, in the case of an impl.
-
-#### Lifetimes and selection
-
-Because of how that lifetime inference works, it is not possible to
-give back immediate feedback as to whether a unification or subtype
-relationship between lifetimes holds or not. Therefore, lifetime
-matching is *not* considered during selection. This is reflected in
-the fact that subregion assignment is infallible. This may yield
-lifetime constraints that will later be found to be in error (in
-contrast, the non-lifetime-constraints have already been checked
-during selection and can never cause an error, though naturally they
-may lead to other errors downstream).
-
-#### Where clauses
 
 Besides an impl, the other major way to resolve an obligation is via a
-where clause. The selection process is always given a *parameter
+where clause. The selection process is always given a [parameter
-environment* which contains a list of where clauses, which are
+environment] which contains a list of where clauses, which are
-basically obligations that can assume are satisfiable. We will iterate
+basically obligations that we can assume are satisfiable. We will iterate
 over that list and check whether our current obligation can be found
-in that list, and if so it is considered satisfied. More precisely, we
+in that list. If so, it is considered satisfied. More precisely, we
 want to check whether there is a where-clause obligation that is for
-the same trait (or some subtrait) and for which the self types match,
+the same trait (or some subtrait) and which can match against the obligation.
-using the definition of *matching* given above.
+
+[parameter environment]: ./param_env.html
 
 Consider this simple example:
 
 ```rust
-trait A1 { /*...*/ }
+trait A1 {
+    fn do_a1(&self);
+}
 trait A2 : A1 { /*...*/ }
 
-trait B { /*...*/ }
+trait B {
+    fn do_b(&self);
+}
 
-fn foo<X:A2+B> { /*...*/ }
+fn foo<X:A2+B>(x: X) {
+    x.do_a1(); // (*)
+    x.do_b();  // (#)
+}
 ```
 
-Clearly we can use methods offered by `A1`, `A2`, or `B` within the
+In the body of `foo`, clearly we can use methods of `A1`, `A2`, or `B`
-body of `foo`. In each case, that will incur an obligation like `X :
+on variable `x`. The line marked `(*)` will incur an obligation `X: A1`,
-A1` or `X : A2`. The parameter environment will contain two
+which the line marked `(#)` will incur an obligation `X: B`. Meanwhile,
-where-clauses, `X : A2` and `X : B`. For each obligation, then, we
+the parameter environment will contain two where-clauses: `X : A2` and `X : B`.
-search this list of where-clauses.  To resolve an obligation `X:A1`,
+For each obligation, then, we search this list of where-clauses. The
-we would note that `X:A2` implies that `X:A1`.
+obligation `X: B` trivially matches against the where-clause `X: B`.
+To resolve an obligation `X:A1`, we would note that `X:A2` implies that `X:A1`.
 
 ### Confirmation
 
-Confirmation unifies the output type parameters of the trait with the
+_Confirmation_ unifies the output type parameters of the trait with the
-values found in the obligation, possibly yielding a type error.  If we
+values found in the obligation, possibly yielding a type error.
-return to our example of the `Convert` trait from the previous
+
-section, confirmation is where an error would be reported, because the
+Suppose we have the following variation of the `Convert` example in the
-impl specified that `T` would be `usize`, but the obligation reported
+previous section:
-`char`. Hence the result of selection would be an error.
+
+```rust
+trait Convert<Target> {
+    fn convert(&self) -> Target;
+}
+
+impl Convert<usize> for isize { /*...*/ } // isize -> usize
+impl Convert<isize> for usize { /*...*/ } // usize -> isize
+
+let x: isize = ...;
+let y: char = x.convert(); // NOTE: `y: char` now!
+```
+
+Confirmation is where an error would be reported because the impl specified
+that `Target` would be `usize`, but the obligation reported `char`. Hence the
+result of selection would be an error.
+
+Note that the candidate impl is chosen base on the `Self` type, but
+confirmation is done based on (in this case) the `Target` type parameter.
 
 ### Selection during translation
 
-During type checking, we do not store the results of trait selection.
+As mentioned above, during type checking, we do not store the results of trait
-We simply wish to verify that trait selection will succeed. Then
+selection. At trans time, repeat the trait selection to choose a particular
-later, at trans time, when we have all concrete types available, we
+impl for each method call. In this second selection, we do not consider any
-can repeat the trait selection.  In this case, we do not consider any
+where-clauses to be in scope because we know that each resolution will resolve
-where-clauses to be in scope. We know that therefore each resolution
+to a particular impl.
-will resolve to a particular impl.
 
 One interesting twist has to do with nested obligations. In general, in trans,
 we only need to do a "shallow" selection for an obligation. That is, we wish to
 identify which impl applies, but we do not (yet) need to decide how to select
-any nested obligations. Nonetheless, we *do* currently do a complete resolution,
+any nested obligations. Nonetheless, we *do* currently do a complete
-and that is because it can sometimes inform the results of type inference. That is,
+resolution, and that is because it can sometimes inform the results of type
-we do not have the full substitutions in terms of the type variables of the impl available
+inference. That is, we do not have the full substitutions for the type
-to us, so we must run trait selection to figure everything out.
+variables of the impl available to us, so we must run trait selection to figure
+everything out.
+
+**TODO**: is this still talking about trans?
 
 Here is an example:
 
@@ -272,214 +301,3 @@ nested obligation `isize : Bar<U>` to find out that `U=usize`.
 
 It would be good to only do *just as much* nested resolution as
 necessary. Currently, though, we just do a full resolution.
-
-# Higher-ranked trait bounds
-
-One of the more subtle concepts at work are *higher-ranked trait
-bounds*. An example of such a bound is `for<'a> MyTrait<&'a isize>`.
-Let's walk through how selection on higher-ranked trait references
-works.
-
-## Basic matching and skolemization leaks
-
-Let's walk through the test `compile-fail/hrtb-just-for-static.rs` to see
-how it works. The test starts with the trait `Foo`:
-
-```rust
-trait Foo<X> {
-    fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
-}
-```
-
-Let's say we have a function `want_hrtb` that wants a type which
-implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any `'a`:
-
-```rust
-fn want_hrtb<T>() where T : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize> { ... }
-```
-
-Now we have a struct `AnyInt` that implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any
-`'a`:
-
-```rust
-struct AnyInt;
-impl<'a> Foo<&'a isize> for AnyInt { }
-```
-
-And the question is, does `AnyInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>`? We want the
-answer to be yes. The algorithm for figuring it out is closely related
-to the subtyping for higher-ranked types (which is described in
-`middle::infer::higher_ranked::doc`, but also in a [paper by SPJ] that
-I recommend you read).
-
-1. Skolemize the obligation.
-2. Match the impl against the skolemized obligation.
-3. Check for skolemization leaks.
-
-[paper by SPJ]: http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/papers/higher-rank/
-
-So let's work through our example. The first thing we would do is to
-skolemize the obligation, yielding `AnyInt : Foo<&'0 isize>` (here `'0`
-represents skolemized region #0). Note that now have no quantifiers;
-in terms of the compiler type, this changes from a `ty::PolyTraitRef`
-to a `TraitRef`. We would then create the `TraitRef` from the impl,
-using fresh variables for it's bound regions (and thus getting
-`Foo<&'$a isize>`, where `'$a` is the inference variable for `'a`). Next
-we relate the two trait refs, yielding a graph with the constraint
-that `'0 == '$a`. Finally, we check for skolemization "leaks" – a
-leak is basically any attempt to relate a skolemized region to another
-skolemized region, or to any region that pre-existed the impl match.
-The leak check is done by searching from the skolemized region to find
-the set of regions that it is related to in any way. This is called
-the "taint" set. To pass the check, that set must consist *solely* of
-itself and region variables from the impl. If the taint set includes
-any other region, then the match is a failure. In this case, the taint
-set for `'0` is `{'0, '$a}`, and hence the check will succeed.
-
-Let's consider a failure case. Imagine we also have a struct
-
-```rust
-struct StaticInt;
-impl Foo<&'static isize> for StaticInt;
-```
-
-We want the obligation `StaticInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` to be
-considered unsatisfied. The check begins just as before. `'a` is
-skolemized to `'0` and the impl trait reference is instantiated to
-`Foo<&'static isize>`. When we relate those two, we get a constraint
-like `'static == '0`. This means that the taint set for `'0` is `{'0,
-'static}`, which fails the leak check.
-
-## Higher-ranked trait obligations
-
-Once the basic matching is done, we get to another interesting topic:
-how to deal with impl obligations. I'll work through a simple example
-here. Imagine we have the traits `Foo` and `Bar` and an associated impl:
-
-```rust
-trait Foo<X> {
-    fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
-}
-
-trait Bar<X> {
-    fn bar(&self, x: X) { }
-}
-
-impl<X,F> Foo<X> for F
-    where F : Bar<X>
-{
-}
-```
-
-Now let's say we have a obligation `for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` and we match
-this impl. What obligation is generated as a result? We want to get
-`for<'a> Bar<&'a isize>`, but how does that happen?
-
-After the matching, we are in a position where we have a skolemized
-substitution like `X => &'0 isize`. If we apply this substitution to the
-impl obligations, we get `F : Bar<&'0 isize>`. Obviously this is not
-directly usable because the skolemized region `'0` cannot leak out of
-our computation.
-
-What we do is to create an inverse mapping from the taint set of `'0`
-back to the original bound region (`'a`, here) that `'0` resulted
-from. (This is done in `higher_ranked::plug_leaks`). We know that the
-leak check passed, so this taint set consists solely of the skolemized
-region itself plus various intermediate region variables. We then walk
-the trait-reference and convert every region in that taint set back to
-a late-bound region, so in this case we'd wind up with `for<'a> F :
-Bar<&'a isize>`.
-
-# Caching and subtle considerations therewith
-
-In general we attempt to cache the results of trait selection.  This
-is a somewhat complex process. Part of the reason for this is that we
-want to be able to cache results even when all the types in the trait
-reference are not fully known. In that case, it may happen that the
-trait selection process is also influencing type variables, so we have
-to be able to not only cache the *result* of the selection process,
-but *replay* its effects on the type variables.
-
-## An example
-
-The high-level idea of how the cache works is that we first replace
-all unbound inference variables with skolemized versions. Therefore,
-if we had a trait reference `usize : Foo<$1>`, where `$n` is an unbound
-inference variable, we might replace it with `usize : Foo<%0>`, where
-`%n` is a skolemized type. We would then look this up in the cache.
-If we found a hit, the hit would tell us the immediate next step to
-take in the selection process: i.e. apply impl #22, or apply where
-clause `X : Foo<Y>`. Let's say in this case there is no hit.
-Therefore, we search through impls and where clauses and so forth, and
-we come to the conclusion that the only possible impl is this one,
-with def-id 22:
-
-```rust
-impl Foo<isize> for usize { ... } // Impl #22
-```
-
-We would then record in the cache `usize : Foo<%0> ==>
-ImplCandidate(22)`. Next we would confirm `ImplCandidate(22)`, which
-would (as a side-effect) unify `$1` with `isize`.
-
-Now, at some later time, we might come along and see a `usize :
-Foo<$3>`.  When skolemized, this would yield `usize : Foo<%0>`, just as
-before, and hence the cache lookup would succeed, yielding
-`ImplCandidate(22)`. We would confirm `ImplCandidate(22)` which would
-(as a side-effect) unify `$3` with `isize`.
-
-## Where clauses and the local vs global cache
-
-One subtle interaction is that the results of trait lookup will vary
-depending on what where clauses are in scope. Therefore, we actually
-have *two* caches, a local and a global cache. The local cache is
-attached to the [`ParamEnv`](./param_env.html) and the global cache attached to the
-`tcx`. We use the local cache whenever the result might depend on the
-where clauses that are in scope. The determination of which cache to
-use is done by the method `pick_candidate_cache` in `select.rs`. At
-the moment, we use a very simple, conservative rule: if there are any
-where-clauses in scope, then we use the local cache.  We used to try
-and draw finer-grained distinctions, but that led to a serious of
-annoying and weird bugs like #22019 and #18290. This simple rule seems
-to be pretty clearly safe and also still retains a very high hit rate
-(~95% when compiling rustc).
-
-# Specialization
-
-Defined in the `specialize` module.
-
-The basic strategy is to build up a *specialization graph* during
-coherence checking. Insertion into the graph locates the right place
-to put an impl in the specialization hierarchy; if there is no right
-place (due to partial overlap but no containment), you get an overlap
-error. Specialization is consulted when selecting an impl (of course),
-and the graph is consulted when propagating defaults down the
-specialization hierarchy.
-
-You might expect that the specialization graph would be used during
-selection – i.e. when actually performing specialization. This is
-not done for two reasons:
-
-- It's merely an optimization: given a set of candidates that apply,
-  we can determine the most specialized one by comparing them directly
-  for specialization, rather than consulting the graph. Given that we
-  also cache the results of selection, the benefit of this
-  optimization is questionable.
-
-- To build the specialization graph in the first place, we need to use
-  selection (because we need to determine whether one impl specializes
-  another). Dealing with this reentrancy would require some additional
-  mode switch for selection. Given that there seems to be no strong
-  reason to use the graph anyway, we stick with a simpler approach in
-  selection, and use the graph only for propagating default
-  implementations.
-
-Trait impl selection can succeed even when multiple impls can apply,
-as long as they are part of the same specialization family. In that
-case, it returns a *single* impl on success – this is the most
-specialized impl *known* to apply. However, if there are any inference
-variables in play, the returned impl may not be the actual impl we
-will use at trans time. Thus, we take special care to avoid projecting
-associated types unless either (1) the associated type does not use
-`default` and thus cannot be overridden or (2) all input types are
-known concretely.

src/trait-specialization.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+# Specialization
+
+Defined in the `specialize` module.
+
+The basic strategy is to build up a *specialization graph* during
+coherence checking. Insertion into the graph locates the right place
+to put an impl in the specialization hierarchy; if there is no right
+place (due to partial overlap but no containment), you get an overlap
+error. Specialization is consulted when selecting an impl (of course),
+and the graph is consulted when propagating defaults down the
+specialization hierarchy.
+
+You might expect that the specialization graph would be used during
+selection – i.e. when actually performing specialization. This is
+not done for two reasons:
+
+- It's merely an optimization: given a set of candidates that apply,
+  we can determine the most specialized one by comparing them directly
+  for specialization, rather than consulting the graph. Given that we
+  also cache the results of selection, the benefit of this
+  optimization is questionable.
+
+- To build the specialization graph in the first place, we need to use
+  selection (because we need to determine whether one impl specializes
+  another). Dealing with this reentrancy would require some additional
+  mode switch for selection. Given that there seems to be no strong
+  reason to use the graph anyway, we stick with a simpler approach in
+  selection, and use the graph only for propagating default
+  implementations.
+
+Trait impl selection can succeed even when multiple impls can apply,
+as long as they are part of the same specialization family. In that
+case, it returns a *single* impl on success – this is the most
+specialized impl *known* to apply. However, if there are any inference
+variables in play, the returned impl may not be the actual impl we
+will use at trans time. Thus, we take special care to avoid projecting
+associated types unless either (1) the associated type does not use
+`default` and thus cannot be overridden or (2) all input types are
+known concretely.